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Co-operative of Christian theology that defends Christianity confronting objections

Christian apologetics (Ancient Greek: ἀπολογία, "verbal defence, speech in defence")[1] is a co-operative of Christian theology that defends Christianity against objections.[2]

Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries, starting with Paul the Apostle in the early church building and Patristic writers such as Origen, Augustine of Hippo, Justin Martyr and Tertullian, then continuing with writers such as Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham and Anselm of Canterbury during Scholasticism.

Blaise Pascal was an active Christian apologist during the 17th century. In the modern period, Christianity was dedicated through the efforts of many authors such every bit John Henry Newman, Thousand. Thou. Chesterton and C. S. Lewis, too as G. East. M. Anscombe.

In contemporary times, Christianity is defended through the work of figures such every bit Ken Ham, J. Warner Wallace, Peter Kreeft, Norman Geisler, Robert Barron, Scott Hahn, John Lennox, Lee Strobel, Francis Collins, Alvin Plantinga, Hugh Ross, John Thou. Stackhouse, Jr., James White, Simon Greenleaf, John Warwick Montgomery, Edwin M. Yamauchi, Gary Habermas, Douglas Groothuis, Frank Turek, Michael Licona, and William Lane Craig.

History [edit]

Jewish precursors [edit]

According to Edgar J. Goodspeed in the first century CE Jewish atoning elements could be seen in works such equally The Wisdom of Solomon, Philo's On the Wistful Life and more explicitly in Josephus' Confronting Apion.[3]

Apostolic and post-apostolic period [edit]

Christian apologetics first appear in the New Testament (e. grand. Paul'south preaching on Mars Hill in Acts 17:22-31). During the subapostolic age Christianity was already competing with Judaism too every bit with various other religions and sects in the Greco-Roman earth. Christian apologetics can be kickoff seen in the ''Preaching of Peter'' (Gospel of Peter), but the get-go explicitly apologetic piece of work comes from Quadratus of Athens (c. 125 CE) in which he writes a defense of the religion to emperor Hadrian. Only a fragment, quoted by Eusebius, has survived to our day:[3]

"Only the works of our Saviour were always present, for they were genuine:—those that were healed, and those that were raised from the dead, who were seen not simply when they were healed and when they were raised, just were besides ever present; and non merely while the Saviour was on earth, just also after his death, they were live for quite a while, so that some of them lived even to our day." (Church History iv. 3. 2)

1 of the first comprehensive attacks on Christianity came from the Greek philosopher Celsus, who wrote The True Word (c.175 CE), a polemic criticizing Christians equally being unprofitable members of society.[four] [5] [6] In response, the church father Origen published his apologetic treatise Contra Celsum, or Against Celsus, which systematically addressed Celsus's criticisms and helped bring Christianity a level of academic respectability.[7] [6] In the treatise, Origen writes from the perspective of a Ideal philosopher, drawing extensively on the teachings of Plato.[8] [7] [six] Contra Celsum is widely regarded by modernistic scholars as one of the most important works of early Christian apologetics.[7] [6] [9]

Other apologists from this flow are Aristides of Athens, the writer of the Epistle to Diognetus, Aristo of Pella, Tatian, Justin Martyr, Melito of Sardis, Athenagoras of Athens, Theophilus of Antioch, Irenaeus, Origen, Hippolytus of Rome, Tertullian, Minucius Felix, Cyprian, and Victorinus of Pettau,[ten]

Center Ages and Early Modern Flow [edit]

Anselm of Canterbury propounded the ontological argument in his Proslogion. Thomas Aquinas presented five means, or arguments for God's existence, in the Summa Theologica, while his Summa contra Gentiles was a major atoning work.[11] [12] Aquinas also fabricated significant criticisms of the ontological argument which resulted in its losing popularity until information technology was revived by Rene Descartes in his Meditations.[xiii] Blaise Pascal outlined an approach to apologetics in his Pensées: "Men despise religion; they detest it and fearfulness information technology is true. To remedy this, we must begin by showing that faith is non contrary to reason; that it is venerable, to inspire respect for it; then we must make it lovable, to make skillful men hope it is truthful; finally, nosotros must prove information technology is truthful."[xiv] [15]

Belatedly Modern Period [edit]

Christian apologetics continues in modern times in a wide variety of forms. Amongst the Roman Catholics there are Bishop Robert Barron, Thou. K. Chesterton,[sixteen] Ronald Knox, Taylor Marshall, Arnold Lunn, Karl Keating, Michael Voris, Peter Kreeft, Frank Sheed, Dr. Scott Hahn, and Patrick Madrid. The Russian Orthodox Seraphim Rose is maybe the best known modern, English language speaking Eastern Orthodox apologist. Among the Evangelicals at that place is the Anglican C. S. Lewis (who popularized the argument now known as Lewis's trilemma).[17] Among Protestant apologists of the 19th century there was William Paley who popularized the Watchmaker analogy. In the first one-half of the 20th century, many Christian fundamentalists became well known apologists. Some of the best known are R. A. Torrey and John Gresham Machen. Evangelical Norman Geisler, Lutheran John Warwick Montgomery and Presbyterian Francis Schaeffer were among the most prolific Christian apologists in the latter half of the 20th century and into the 21st, while Gordon Clark and Cornelius Van Til started a new schoolhouse of philosophical apologetics called presuppositionalism, which is popular in Calvinist circles.

Others include William Lane Craig, Douglas Groothuis, Josh McDowell, Hugo Anthony Meynell, Timothy J. Keller, Francis Collins, Vishal Mangalwadi, Richard Bauckham, Craig Evans, Darrell Bock, John F. MacArthur, Michael R. Licona, Ravi Zacharias and John Lennox.

Terminology and origin [edit]

The original Greek apologia (ἀπολογία, from ἀπολογέομαι, apologeomai, "speak in return, defend oneself") was a formal exact defense, either in response to allegation or prosecution in a court of law. The defense force of Socrates as presented by Plato and Xenophon was an apologia against charges of "corrupting the young, and … not believing in the gods in whom the city believes, but in other daimonia that are novel".[xviii]

In later on use 'apologia' sometimes took a literary form in early Christian discourse as an example of the integration of educated Christians into the cultural life of the Roman Empire, particularly during the "little peace" of the third century,[19] and of their participation in the Greek intellectual move broadly known equally the 2d Sophistic.[20] The Christian apologists of the early on Church building did not refuse Greek philosophy, but attempted to show the positive value of Christianity in dynamic relation to the Greek rationalist tradition.[21]

In the 2nd century, apologetics was a defense or explanation of Christianity,[22] addressed to those standing in opposition and those however to class an opinion, such equally emperors and other authority figures, or potential converts.[23] The earliest martyr narrative has the spokesman for the persecuted present a defense in the apologetic fashion: Christianity was a rational religion that worshiped but God, and although Christians were law-abiding citizens willing to award the emperor, their conventionalities in a single divinity prevented them from taking the loyalty oaths that acknowledged the emperor's divinity.[24]

The apologetic historiography in the Acts of the Apostles presented Christianity every bit a religious movement at dwelling house inside the Roman Empire and no threat to information technology and was a model for the first major historian of the Church building, Eusebius.[25] Apologetics might also exist directed to Christians already inside the community explicate their beliefs and justify positions.[23] Origen'due south apologetic Contra Celsum, for instance, provided a defense force against the arguments of a critic expressionless for decades to provide answers to doubting Christians lacking immediate answers to the questions raised. Atoning literature was an of import medium for the formation of early Christian identity.[26]

In addition to Origen and Tertullian, early Christian apologists include Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, and the author of the Epistle to Diognetus.[27] Augustine of Hippo was a significant apologist of the Patristic era.[28] Some scholars regard apologetics every bit a singled-out literary genre exhibiting commonalities of way and form, content, and strategies of argumentation. Others viewed it every bit a form of soapbox characterized past its tone and purpose.[29]

Biblical basis [edit]

R. C. Sproul, quoting the Kickoff Epistle of Peter, writes that "The defense of the religion is not a luxury or intellectual vanity. It is a task appointed by God that you should be able to give a reason for the hope that is in you every bit you deport witness earlier the earth."[30] The poetry quoted hither reads in total: "but in your hearts award Christ the Lord as holy, e'er beingness prepared to make a defense to anyone who asks you for a reason for the promise that is in yous; yet do information technology with gentleness and respect."[31]

Another passage sometimes used every bit a biblical footing for Christian apologetics is God's entreaty in the Book of Isaiah: "Come now, let u.s.a. reason together."[32] [33] Other scriptural passages which take been taken as a footing for Christian apologetics include Psalm 19, which begins "The heavens declare the glory of God; the skies proclaim the work of his hands,"[34] and Romans one, which reads "For since the cosmos of the world God'due south invisible qualities—his eternal ability and divine nature—have been conspicuously seen, being understood from what has been made, then that men are without excuse."[35] [36]

Varieties [edit]

There are a multifariousness of Christian apologetic styles and schools of thought. The major types of Christian apologetics include historical and legal evidentialist apologetics, presuppositional apologetics, philosophical apologetics, prophetic apologetics, doctrinal apologetics, biblical apologetics, moral apologetics, and scientific apologetics.

Biblical apologetics [edit]

Biblical apologetics include issues concerned with the authorship and engagement of biblical books, biblical canon, and biblical inerrancy. Christian apologists defend and comment on various books of the Bible. Some scholars who take engaged in the defence force of biblical inerrancy include Robert Dick Wilson, Gleason Archer, Norman Geisler and R. C. Sproul. There are several resources that Christians offering defending inerrancy in regard to specific verses.[ citation needed ] Authors defending the reliability of the Gospels include Craig Blomberg in The Historical Reliability of the Gospels,[37] Mark D. Roberts in Can We Trust the Gospels? [38] Richard Bauckham, Craig Evans and Darrell Bock.

Experiential apologetics [edit]

Experiential apologetics is a reference to an appeal "primarily, if not exclusively, to experience as evidence for Christian faith."[39] Also, "they spurn rational arguments or factual prove in favor of what they believe to be a self-verifying feel." This view stresses experience that other apologists have not made as explicit, and in the finish, the concept that the Holy Spirit convinces the eye of truth becomes the central theme of the apologetic argument.[40]

Historical and legal evidentialism [edit]

A variety of arguments has been forwarded past legal scholars such equally Simon Greenleaf and John Warwick Montgomery, by good forensic investigators such as cold case homicide detective J. Warner Wallace, and academic historical scholars, such equally Edwin Yard. Yamauchi. These arguments present a example for the historicity of the resurrection of Christ per current legal standards of bear witness or undermining the infidel myth hypothesis for the origin of Christianity.[41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46]

Regarding show for the historicity of the resurrection, A. N. Sherwin-White states:

For Acts, the confirmation of historicity is overwhelming. Acts is, in uncomplicated terms and judged externally, no less of a propaganda narrative than the Gospels, liable to similar distortions. But any endeavor to reject its bones historicity, even in matters of item, must now announced cool. Roman historians have long taken it for granted.... The agnostic blazon of form-criticism would be much more apparent if the compilation of the Gospels were much later in time.... Herodotus enables us to test the tempo of myth-making, [showing that] even two generations are too brusque a span to let the mythical tendency to prevail over the hard historic core.[47]

Moral apologetics [edit]

Moral apologetics states that existent moral obligation is a fact. Catholic apologist Peter Kreeft said, "We are really, truly, objectively obligated to practise good and avoid evil."[48] In moral apologetics, the arguments for homo'southward sinfulness and human'due south demand for redemption are stressed. Examples of this type of apologetic would be Jonathan Edwards' sermon "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God."[49] The Four Spiritual Laws religious tract (Campus Cause for Christ) would be some other example.[50]

Defense of miracles [edit]

C. S. Lewis,[51] Norman Geisler,[52] William Lane Craig and Christians who engage in jurisprudence Christian apologetics have argued that miracles are reasonable and plausible wherever an anointed Creator is postulated. In other words, information technology is postulated that if God exists, miracles cannot be postulated equally impossible or inherently improbable.[53] [54] [55]

Philosophical apologetics [edit]

Philosophical apologetics concerns itself primarily with arguments for the existence of God, although they practice not exclusively focus on this area. They exercise non argue for the veracity of Christianity over other religions but merely for the existence of a Creator deity. Omnipotence and omniscience are implied in these arguments to greater or bottom degrees: some argue for an interventionist god, some are as relevant to a Deist formulation of God.

They do non support hard polytheism, but could exist used to describe the first god who created many other gods; however, the arguments are only relevant when applied to the offset god (the first cause, pure human action and unmoved mover; it is a contradiction a priori to suppose a plurality of "pure acts" or "offset causes" or "unmoved movers").

These arguments tin can be grouped into several categories:

  1. Cosmological argument – Argues that the existence of the universe demonstrates that God exists. Various primary arguments from cosmology and the nature of causation are often offered to back up the cosmological statement.[56] [57] [58]
  2. Teleological argument – Argues that there is a purposeful design in the world around us, and a design requires a designer. Cicero, William Paley, and Michael Behe use this statement besides as others.[59]
  3. Ontological argument – Argues that the very concept of God demands that there is an actual existent God.
  4. Moral Argument – Argues that there are objectively valid moral values, and therefore, at that place must be an absolute from which they are derived.[sixty]
  5. Transcendental Statement – Argues that all our abilities to think and reason crave the existence of God.
  6. Presuppositional arguments – Argues that the basic behavior of theists and nontheists crave God as a necessary pre-condition.

Other philosophical arguments include:

  • Alvin Plantinga's argument that belief in God is properly bones, reformed epistemology.[61]
  • Pascal'due south wager,[62] is an argument that posits that humans all bet with their lives either that God exists or that he does non. Pascal argues that a rational person should live as though God exists.[63] [64]

In add-on to arguments for the existence of God, Christian apologists have also attempted to respond successfully to arguments against the existence of God. Two very popular arguments confronting the existence of God are the hiddenness argument and the argument from evil. The hiddenness statement tries to show that a perfectly loving God'due south existence is incompatible with the existence of nonresistant nonbelievers. The argument from evil tries to show that the beingness of evil renders God's existence unlikely or impossible.

Presuppositional apologetics [edit]

Presuppositional apologetics is a Reformed Protestant methodology which claims that presuppositions are essential to any philosophical position and that there are no "neutral" assumptions from which a Christian can reason in common with a non-Christian.[65] There are 2 main schools of presuppositional apologetics, that of Cornelius Van Til (and his students Greg Bahnsen and John Frame) and that of Gordon Haddon Clark.

Van Til drew upon merely did not always agree with, the work of Dutch Calvinist philosophers and theologians such every bit D. H. Th. Vollenhoven, Herman Dooyeweerd, Hendrik G. Stoker, Herman Bavinck, and Abraham Kuyper. Bahnsen describes Van Til'southward approach to Christian apologetics every bit pointing out the difference in ultimate principles between Christians and non-Christians and then showing that the not-Christian principles reduce to absurdity.[66] In practise, this school utilizes what has come to be known as the transcendental argument for the existence of God.

Clark held that the Scriptures constituted the axioms of Christian thought, which could non exist questioned, though their consistency could be discussed.[65] A consequence of this position is that God'southward existence can never be demonstrated, either by empirical ways or past philosophical argument. In The Justification of Noesis, the Calvinist theologian Robert Fifty. Reymond argues that believers should non fifty-fifty attempt such proofs.

Prophetic fulfillment [edit]

In his book Science Speaks, Peter Stoner argues that only God knows the future and that Biblical prophecies of a compelling nature have been fulfilled.[67] Apologist Josh McDowell documents the Old Testament prophecies fulfilled past Christ, relating to his bequeathed line, birthplace, virgin nativity, miracles, death, and resurrection.[68] Apologist Blaise Pascal believed that the prophecies are the strongest prove for Christianity. He notes that Jesus not only foretold, but was foretold, unlike in other religions, and that these prophecies came from a succession of people over a bridge of 4 thousand years.[69]

Origins apologetics [edit]

Many Christians argue that science and the Bible do not contradict each other and that scientific fact supports Christian apologetics.[70] [71] The Catechism of the Cosmic Church states that "The question about the origins of the world and of man has been the object of many scientific studies which have splendidly enriched our cognition... These discoveries invite us to even greater admiration for the greatness of the Creator."[72] The theologian and mathematician Marin Mersenne used angelic mechanics every bit show in his atoning work,[73] while Matteo Ricci engaged in scientific apologetics in China.[74] In modern times, the theory of the Big Bang has been used in back up of Christian apologetics.[75] [76]

Several Christian apologists have sought to reconcile Christianity and scientific discipline apropos the question of origins. Theistic Evolution claims that classical religious teachings near God are compatible with the modern scientific agreement almost biological evolution and that the Creator God uses the procedure of development. Denis Lamoureux, in Evolutionary Creation: A Christian Approach to Evolution states that "This view of origins fully embraces both the religious behavior of biblical Christianity and the scientific theories of cosmological, geological, and biological development. It contends that the Creator established and maintains the laws of nature, including the mechanisms of a teleological development."[77]

The most radical[ commendation needed ] example of a Christian-evolutionary synthesis is the work of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, which was intended as apologetics to the world of science,[78] but which was later condemned past the Catholic Church.

Creationist apologetics [edit]

Creationist apologetics aims to defend views of origins such as Young Earth creationism and Former Earth creationism that run counter to mainstream science.

Young Earth creationists believe the Bible teaches that the Globe is approximately 6,000 years erstwhile, and reject the scientific consensus for the age of the Globe. They apply a literal interpretation to the primordial history in Genesis 1–11 – such every bit the long life spans of people such as Methuselah,[79] the Flood,[fourscore] [81] and the Belfry of Boom-boom.[82] [83] [84] Among the biggest immature Globe creation apologetic organizations are Answers in Genesis, Constitute for Cosmos Inquiry, and Creation Ministries International.

Old Earth creationists believe information technology is possible to harmonize the Bible's six-twenty-four hour period account of cosmos with the scientific consensus that the universe is 13.8 billion-years-old and World is iv.54 billion-years-quondam. Old Earth creationists, such every bit astrophysicist Hugh Ross, see each of the six days of creation every bit being a long, simply finite period of time, based on the multiple meanings of the Hebrew discussion yom (day light hours/24 hours/age of time) and other Biblical creation passages.[85] [86]

Major colleges and universities offering Christian apologetics programs [edit]

School Location Program Comments Degrees awarded Ref.
Biola University Southern California, U.s.a. Christian Apologetics Certificate, M.A. [87]
Central India Theological Seminary Itarsi, Republic of india Christian Apologetics M.Th., Ph.D. [88]

[89]

Clarks Summit University South Abington Township, PA, US Biblical Apologetics M.A. [90]
Colorado Christian University Colorado, US Practical Apologetics Document, Bachelors, MA [91]
Denver Seminary Colorado, US Apologetics and Ideals 1000.A., M.Div. with Emphasis [92] [93]
Hong Kong Centre for Christian Apologetics Hong Kong Christian Apologetics Certificate in Christian Apologetics [94]
Houston Baptist University Houston, TX, Usa Christian Apologetics Yard.A.A. [95]
New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary New Orleans, Louisiana Christian Apologetics K.A., 1000.Div., D.Min., Ph.D. [96]
Oklahoma Wesleyan Academy Bartlesville, Oklahoma Christian Apologetics M.A.
Westminster Theological Seminary Philadelphia, US Apologetics Doctoral, Masters, Certificate Programs [97]
South African Theological Seminary Johannesburg, S Africa Apologetics Th.Thousand. [98]
Southern Baptist Theological Seminary Louisville, KY Apologetics/Apologetics & Worldviews Thousand.A., Ph.D. [99]
Southern Evangelical Seminary Charlotte, N Carolina Apologetics/Scientific Apologetics Certificate, MA, 1000.Div., D.Min. [100]
Gimlekollen NLA College Kristiansand, Norway Communication, worldview and Christian apologetics Document, Available [101]

Meet too [edit]

  • List of Christian atoning works
  • Christian existential apologetics
  • Christian philosophy
  • Christianity and Theosophy
  • Ecumenical apologetics
  • Evidential apologetics
  • Faith and rationality
  • Religious epistemology

References [edit]

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External links [edit]

  • Media related to Christian apologetics at Wikimedia Eatables
  • Detailed summaries of each affiliate of many famous books concerning science and organized religion
  • Urban Apologetics

danhinst1990.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_apologetics

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